The Originality of Levinas: Pre-Originally Categorizing the Ego :: Philosophy Essays

The Originality of Levinas: Pre-Originally Categorizing the Ego Conceptual: Levinas portrays a pluralism of subjectivity more established than awareness and reluctance. He disavows Heidegger's thought of isolation so as to investigate the ramifications of the Husserlian unadulterated I outside the subject. A shrouded Good comprises the Other in oneself: a diremption not to the detriment of the solidarity of oneself. Levinas remains with Nietzsche in favor of life which requires and is able to do no legitimization at all. In any case, for Levinas the totality is burst by the idea that there is a solidarity of self undiminished by its prehistoric obligation regarding the Other, a solidarity of self past totality. This self containing the Other is the amazing quality of the Ego in any case inalienable in Husserl's unadulterated deliberateness. Simply here Levinas' idea is most totally recognized from Sartre's thought of the greatness of the Ego as complete avoidance from the innateness of deliberateness. The unadulterated I is in any case than the H egelian total Elastizit㠤t: manifest and excited, the self tight in its own skin. The transubstantiation of Ego to Other has not yet happened to thought in Levinas, however what happens here is the altersubstantiation of the I. The Other in the Same is a change of embodiment. It is correctly through reasoning the withdrawal of [the modern] substance [of consciousness] that Levinas thinks in any case than being, past pith, thinks an idea profounder and 'more seasoned' than the cogito. Humanity means another picture of the Infinite in the preoriginary opportunity by which the Self shows the Other benevolence. The bend on the here side of awareness is 'a curved without an arched': the cuspidal endlessness of interiority turned totally inside outside the other inside: an interiority without dividers, limitlessly uncovered. At that point straight is the roadway between the cusps of this completely rearranged awareness †better than cognizance †rising above the first ebb and flow of cognizance and reluctance. This single direction immediately is simply the prehistoric contact and other. It is the total nearness which is simply the methodology, without return, from the to the next . This is the methodology †without technique †before any thought of correspondence and intelligent or pre-intelligent cognizance. This adoration or non-lack of concern before all cognizant separation, this chance of being for-each other is simply the duty of the to accomplish for the Other. The essentialness of the tissue to this turning of the self to the Other connotes the greatness whereby the human rises above the other-worldly.

Mayoral Debate essays

Mayoral Debate expositions During October 2003, a bug was found in the civic chairman's office preceding the Philadelphia Mayoral political race. When the bug was discovered the FBI expressed that it was put regarding certain examinations however they declined to express the idea of the examination. That the bug was found so near the political race date has raised the Mayors rage. He has proposed that the bug was evidently planted by the FBI on the side of Sam Katz a Republican applicant. Sam Katz discredited these reports and said that it was about time that the degenerate acts of John Street, a first term Democrat up-and-comer was uncovered. Dubiously, a survey that was discharged after the bothering occurrence demonstrated that it presumably influenced the outcomes making both side of the accounts sketchy. Because of this occurrence, Katz what's more, his rival John Street wound up in a discussion that was The Street Katz banter' held the state as well as the whole nation enchant. A large portion of the country watched the discussion as the topics of defilement', TV' and legislative issues' consistently hold a certain amusement esteem and thusly, a various crowd ended up following the discussion, regardless of whether they had recently discovered nothing of intrigue where legislative issues was concerned. The language, the style, the contention and the real talk itself had extraordinary import as both the pioneers understood that the discussion could represent the moment of truth their professions. Every one of the debaters was keen on attacking to guarantee a solid contention with the goal that none of the crowd considered them to be the crook' party. Governmental issues today is definitely not a straightforward employment; it's a game that has to be played with all the show and grandeur of a Hollywood film. Taking this foundation into account we can acknowledge the expressions of Katz who says, All that has gone on over the most recent few weeks puts a shout point on essentially 100 years of Philadelphia being a city degenerate... <!

Soup Dumplings, Fever Pitch

Soup Dumplings, Fever Pitch Yesterday after work I headed downtown for the evening. First stop was one of my favorite restuarants in Chinatown: Taiwan Cafe. Taiwan Cafe is the best place in town for soup dumplings (very, very yummy). Taiwan cafe in Bostons Chinatown. Soup dumplings are delicious and fun to eat. For more blog entries that begin with great food recommendations, browse on over to Mitras blog (this week: Thai food at Chili Duck). After dinner, it was over to the Boston Common Theater, Bostons largest (and most expensive) movie theater. When I walked in, I saw a big crowd of geeks, and suddenly remembered that this was the night of the super-secret pre-screening of Joss Whedons next film, Serenity (trailer here). Of course, I was one of the many folks who didnt get tickets. Instead, I watched Fever Pitch (with Drew Barrymore and Jimmy Fallon, directed by the Farrelly brothers). There were many great shots of Boston, and I thought the film well captured New Englands passion for the Red Sox, but the love story seemed to fall a little flat. And for those of you who were upset by the changes from the book to movie version of Hitchhikers Guide, you should read the Nick Hornby novel on which this movie is very loosely based (Id say Clueless is a more faithful adaptation of Emma). The largest similarity, I suppose, is between the long-suffering fans of Arsenal and of the Red Sox (and, by implication, Manchester United and the Yankees). Interestingly, both Arsenal and the Red Sox (both of whom I root for) majestically won it all in 2004. In the last couple weeks, though, I have seen some trailers for movies Im pretty excited about, including The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe and Howls Moving Castle. and (big confession here) even though I didnt much care for the book, The DaVinci Code (its got Tom Hanks and Audrey Tautou, not to mention Ian McKellen, Alfred Molina and Jean Reno?!). Which upcoming films are you excited about?

Notes From The Underground by Fyodor Dostoyevsky - 577 Words

The Underground Man is alone because he has chosen to be; he is hyper-conscious, meaning he is too aware and over analyses everything – his biggest worries are petty compared to what is going around him. As a society, we worry so much about ourselves and our own persona, we sometimes become paranoid. A perfect example is given when the Underground Man is on the verge of having dinner with his old comrades and he notices a stain on his trousers â€Å"The worst of it was that on the knee of my trousers was a bug yellow stain. I had a foreboding that that stain deprive me of nine-tenths of my personal dignity.† (NU 48) He immediately panics as he worries about whether his friends will see it, and goes as far as to consider forgetting dinner because he is so embarrassed. As shameful as it is to admit, we too have reached the point where we are so concerned with out outer appearance that we let it dominate most of our life – there are several instances where we dicta te who we associate with and who we befriend based on their appearance. He is severely misanthropic, marked by hatred, distrust, and disdain toward the human race; he believes himself to be more intelligent and perceptive than most other people, and this contrast with the fact that he despises himself and frequently feels inferior or humiliated. Due to his lack of loving relationship growing up, he goes through life full of shame and self loathing, often falling into existentialism. The Underground Man’s urge forShow MoreRelatedNotes from the Underground by Fyodor Dostoyevsky1616 Words   |  7 PagesFyodor Dostoyevsky (1821-1881) was a Russian novelist, journalist, and short story writer that discussed the psychological state of the human soul in many of his works, one in particular is Notes from the Underground; which was published in 1864. Notes from the Underground, had a great influence in the 20th century; the novel takes a man’s inability to communicate with s ociety and uses it to teach readers about the importance of other humans in our daily lives and how that affects the way we thinkRead MoreThe Underground Man Essay971 Words   |  4 PagesNotes from the Underground is a novel written by Russian author Fyodor Dostoyevsky. In this book, Dostoyevsky illustrated his ideals through the words of his literary protagonist, the Underground Man. 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ThroughRead MoreEssay about Fyodor Dostoyevsky636 Words   |  3 PagesFyodor Dostoyevsky       Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821-1881) was one of the greatest Russian novelists to ever live. There are so few authors, as Dostoyevsky was, who have had such a great impact on 20th century western literature. His works analyze social, moral, political, and psychological aspects of mankind.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dostoyevsky was born in Moscow in 1821. Much of Dostoyevskys life experiences, especially early on, provided much influence for his writings. Dostoyevskys determinationRead MoreThe Underground Man By Fyodor Dostoyevsky875 Words   |  4 Pages Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s novel, Notes from the Underground Man, uses the idea of a modern dystopia by depicting a story that revolves around a distressed older man. Throughout the novel, the main character has a narcissistic belief that he is better than everyone else because of his acute sense of consciousness. His awareness however, also causes him to believe not only are people ignorant to the world around him but that they are also against him. In contrast, critics believe that the main characterRead More Humanities’ Irrational and its Effects on a Utopian Society1690 Words   |  7 Pagesthe recognition that the irrational is there, that it must be controlled to take over. Man’s aggressive nature does tend to overpower the mind, leading to irrational actions. Both Freud’s Civilization and its Discontents and Dostoyevsky’s Notes from Underground show how humans are controlled by their irrational drives and that, as a result, the attempts to create a utopian society are futile. To take a different view of the irrational actions in humans, a cinematic frame of reference was introducedRead MoreKnowing Is Better Than Not Knowing1676 Words   |  7 PagesKnowing is Better than Not Knowing Fyodor Dostoevsky’a novel â€Å"Notes from Underground† is known for being the first existentialist novel. A 40 year old man living in St. Petersburg, Russia known as the Underground Man works as a civil servant, but retired shortly after inheriting money from a distant relative. The Underground Man introduces himself by telling the reader, â€Å"I am a sick man. ... I am a spiteful man. I am an unattractive man† (1). He also says he could never be spiteful and how he couldRead MoreUnderground Man By Fyodor Dostoyevsky1453 Words   |  6 PagesFyodor Dostoyevsky paints Underground man as someone who is tortured in his novel Notes From Underground. Despite everything that Underground man says he is lost and has no sense of his identity. When the character of Liza is introduced the reader gains some hope that the Underground man can find love. Although Underground man ultimately pushes Liza away, he really loved her through his own idea of love. Underground man s hows this love for her through his first conversation with Liza, his tryingRead MoreDostoyevsky ‘Notes from Underground’ Critique Essay1586 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Notes from Underground† was published in 1864 as a feature presentation of his first 1860 issue â€Å"The Epoch†. â€Å"Notes from Underground† was written by the author during a time when he faced many challenges in his life. Dostoyevsky faced failure in the publishing of his first journal â€Å"Time†, his financial position was becoming weaker and embarrassing. Moreover, his wife was dying and his conservatism was eroded leading to a decline in his popularity with the liberal reading Russians and consequentlyRead MoreThe Underground Man By Fyodor Dostoyevsky952 Words   |  4 PagesIn Notes from the Underground by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, the underground man is a man who is â€Å"living out [his] life in a [his] corner† (2) and is paralyzed by consciousness. The undergroun d man proposes the example of revenge as a way to examine the differences between himself and the man of action; the man of action being a man who can act as opposed to the paralysis of the underground man. The man of action can act, but his position is inconsistent. The underground man thinks he will be miserable regardless

How Important Was the Crown in Maintaining the Political...

How important was the crown in maintaining the Political stability of Tudor England? Tudor England was time of rebellion and turmoil. The head of Tudor England ,the monarch,was responsible for keeping his or her country running well. The crown was the sublime leader he or she ran the government and parliament and therefore he or she were responsible for maintaining political stability during this period. Tudor society was the epicentre of Tudor politics. The power of your words within the political world depended on your rank in the society. Higher ranks had their say whilst low ranking people of the society did what the higher ranked noblemen and earls said. The highest ranks were governed by the Monarch. Henry VII ordered†¦show more content†¦Across the countryside of South East England he constructed 55 palaces and employed Holbein a German artist to create imposing and powerfully striking portraits of himself. These powerful portraits were also imposed on coinage. Coins in Henry VIIIs reign showed Henry wearing his imperial crown. In Edward IVs reign,eve n though he was a mere child,he was depicted wearing full battle armour on royal coins. Coinage was vitally important in maintaining political stability. For the majority of the Tudor population the portraits stamped on to their coins were the only visual image they had of the monarch. If the coins showed a powerful and wealthy portrait of the ruling monarch then this is what the laity would presume the monarch was,therefore this was an effective way of keeping political support of the common people. Even though coins gave the laity an idea of what the monarch looked like,it was still as equally important for the monarch to show himself in person to his subjects. During summer months it was not unusual for the whole court to regularly move from place to place on progress. These processions gave a chance for the laity to to have a glance at the royal person and also gave the monarch a chance to entertain and impress local gentry who did not have access to the royal court in London. Even though these processions were used to gain support from all over England in truth they were mainly confinedShow MoreRelatedIn the context of the years 1485 to 1603 to what extent was the government of England dysfunctional in the mid-Tudor period?3559 Words   |  15 Pagescontext of the years 1485 to 1603 to what extent was the government of England dysfunctional in the mid-Tudor period? During the Tudor Dynasty it is easily thought that the years between 1547 and 1558 were ones of crisis. With the succession of a child and the first woman within England, people have assumed that the years between Henry VIII and Elizabeth I were an unproductive interlude. The mid Tudor period is seen as negative years within the Tudor Dynasty. It is regarded that Henry VIII and ElizabethRead MoreHenry Viii And The Reformation Of England s Church System4160 Words   |  17 PagesHenry VIII and the Reformation of England’s Church System How did events during Henry VIII’s reign cause for a permanent shift in the religious system of England? Hannah Snow Candidate Number: 000784-0009 Extended Essay â€Æ' Abstract: Henry VIII was the King that would change England’s religious system and make it his legacy. The religious system would carry on after his reign and become the predominant religion of England. The question is: How did events connected to key historical figures during HenryRead MoreMing Dynasty and B. Warehouses. C. Essay4779 Words   |  20 Pagestrade had to be conducted on Chinese ships with Chinese crews. c. the governor was occupied with matters related to maintaining the city walls and left control of the ports to merchants. d. the Chinese ships were called dhows. e. Buddhist monasteries took control of trading to ensure fair practices. 4. In the tropical rain forest of western and central Africa, the predominant form of social organization was: a. urban communities linked together through long-distance trade. b. small-scaleRead MoreRethinking Mercantalism Essay15042 Words   |  61 PagesRethinking Mercantilism: Political Economy, the British Empire, and the Atlantic World in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Author(s): Steve Pincus Reviewed work(s): Source: The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 69, No. 1 (January 2012), pp. 3-34 Published by: Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5309/willmaryquar.69.1.0003 . Accessed: 06/09/2012 12:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the TermsRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesSaddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational behavior / Stephen P. Robbins, Timothy A. Judge. — 15th ed. p. cm. Includes

Ethical dilemma of a patient’s refusal of blood transfusion Free Essays

string(66) " that treats others as mere means, rather than end in themselves\." Introduction In the analysis of this ethical dilemma we assess a case of a 20-year-old, pregnant, black Hispanic female presented to the Emergency Department (ED) in critical condition following a car accident. She displayed signs and symptoms of internal bleeding and was advised to have a blood transfusion and emergency surgery in an attempt to save her and the foetus. She refused to accept blood or blood products and rejected the surgery as well. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical dilemma of a patient’s refusal of blood transfusion or any similar topic only for you Order Now Her refusal was based on a fear of blood transfusion due to her religious beliefs. The ethical dilemma presented is whether to respect the patient’s autonomy and compromise standards of care or ignore the patient’s wishes in an attempt to save her life. Her religious values are at stake. The issues concerning her values are the right or wrong of her actions and the acceptance, reputation or embarrassment of her decision in the social world. This case demonstrates dilemmas faced by healthcare professionals caring for patients in critical, life-threatening situations who have divergent views and values contrary to what is offered as a solution to their predicament. In the analysis of the ethical dilemma surrounding this particular case, we make explorations basing on two principle approaches; utilitarianism and deontology. This is in an endeavour to find the right moral balance and/or stand between the patient’s view and value and that of the healthcare professional seeking to intervene to restore her to health. Utilitarian approach Utilitarianism believes that the moral standing of an action, whether right or wrong, is dependent entirely on its consequences. This theory holds that the course of action that is considered proper is one that maximizes utility, maximizing happiness and reducing pain/suffering. In this approach, the worth of an action is only determined by outcome or result, consequent to that action. It therefore is a form of consequentialism (Paul and Elder, 2006). For our purpose and appropriate in this context, Mill (1998) argues that â€Å"the morality of the action depends entirely upon the intention – that is, upon what the agent wills to do.† Intention, in it being a foresight of consequences, constitutes the moral position of the act, whether right or wrong. I acknowledge that what is morally right and best for her in the values that she has expressed, is her religious stand and affiliation in which the medical interventions proposed are denounced. At the same time, however, and under the circumstances, her health risks might lead to miscarriage and there is likelihood that they might also eventually lead her into depression. In the utilitarian view, the young lady in this situation risks losing her own life and that of the foetus she carries if she does not allow the blood transfusion and surgical procedure to bring her to health. The doctors and nurses therefore have to consider her life first. Her circumstance is considered as legally enforceable and specific according to the Bentham’s tradition right (1816), assigning to law the role to define inviolable rights to protect the well-being of the individual (Hart, 1973). The utilitarian approach is a straight forward way to determine the best possibilities for all involved, balancing pleasure over pain for everyone (Paul and Elder, 2006). According to this principle, it is better to maximize equality between the lady and her foetus, and in view of her severe pain, to go ahead and perform the blood transfusion and emergency surgery. With this approach, I assume that later in a better state of health and recovery and after saving her life, she will console and will reconcile her moral stand with her predicament. The physicians therefore have the moral right to override the young lady’s refusal of the blood transfusion. Also useful in the argument and supporting the judgment for blood transfusion that the doctor may (or must) seek to override the patient’s refusal are two ethical principles. These are the principle of non-maleficence and the related principle of beneficence. The principle of non-maleficence requires the doctor to avoid harm where possible (Paul and Elder, 2006). So, withholding a proven, beneficial treatment would likely have the effect of producing harm. On the other hand, the principle of beneficence, which is inherent in the maximization of benefits and minimization of harm (Paul and Elder, 2006), could also be useful in support of the argument for the duty to administer the blood transfusion against the patient’s expressed will. However, this assumption and what society regards as of best interest to the patient should not be determinative of what is ideally her individual best interest. Overriding her wishes and not taking her religious views into account in going ahead with the blood transfusion and intervention might lead to a far worse situation for her. Among the possible eventualities after her treatment is depression, which might result from feeling that she has gone against the rules and expectations of her religion which are very important to her. Her situation might also be worse if she gets eliminated from her church for going against the rules of her religion. She might lose acceptance from her family members and friends. These eventualities might lead to the deterioration of her health, which by taking the contrasted utilitarian approach and our assumptions, we intend to protect. This eventuality will therefore thwart our best intentions. Deontological approach A more appropriate approach, more suitable to determine what is best for her, is Deontology and especially the philosophical tradition of Immanuel Kant. Unlike utilitarianism which is focused on the outcomes, consequences and eventualities of actions, Deontological ethics often referred to as duty-based ethics, are concerned with what people do, their actions. It is the belief that people have a duty to do the right thing, even it produces more harm (or less good) or a bad result than do the wrong thing (Wood, 1999). Kant gives a ‘categorical imperative’ to act morally at all times. One was that it was wrong to act in a way that treats others as mere means, rather than end in themselves. You read "Ethical dilemma of a patient’s refusal of blood transfusion" in category "Essay examples" According to Kant, persons are made special by a distinctive set of principally psychological capacities which includes self-consciousness and rationality, a distinct capacity for personhood (Wood, 1999). This view is founded on two basic principles; first, a person has the distinctive ability to think and to act rationally, best expressed when they behave morally or as a moral community. Secondly, people have dignity and are valuable in a distinctive way, a unique, intrinsic value that has no exchange value. This is in contrast to things which have an exchange value such as a coat whose value is equivalent to the money paid for it (Wood, 1999). According to Deontology, it will be wrong to undermine her autonomy and flout her dignity – treat her as a mere means. It is better, therefore, to respect her religious belief and respect her decision not wanting to have the blood transfusion. Respect for the patient’s principles and her status as a competent adult mandates that doctors should comply with her expressed wishes even if the predicted outcomes are unfavourable or may result in death. It is her choice as a self-conscious, rational adult with intrinsic capacity to evaluate and know what is morally right and acceptable for herself. Morality versus religion For many religious people, and especially those in monotheistic religions, morality and religion are the same – they are inseparable. For them, it is either that religion is their morality or that morality is part of their religion (Childress, et al., 1986). Religions have frameworks of values through which adherents are guided in determining right and wrong. The monotheistic religions derive ideas of right and wrong by the rules and laws set in their respective holy books and by their religious leaders (Childress, et al., 1986). For adherents like our patient, the rules set out and as interpreted by religious leaders are absolute and there are dire consequences for flouting such rules. For most monotheistic religions, flouting rules and values is considered ‘sin’, a failure that leads to punishment in the after-life. The patient in this instance expresses a fear of blood transfusion due to her religious beliefs, possibly a fear of dire consequence such as future punishment. This absolutism and the derivation of values from deity and holy books can hardly be challenged by rational criticism and explanations that seek to give some worth to disallowed practices and procedures such as blood transfusion in this particular case. My personal view There can be different opinions and points of view about what should be done with the patient in the analysis of this ethical dilemma. There can be different possibilities and we may never reach clear and generally agreeable conclusions with regard to what is morally right in this case, with our conclusions and inferences dependent on our varied ideas and beliefs over morality based on varied religious, societal and cultural backgrounds, among other influences. With the well-being of the individual protected as an inviolable right in the utilitarian approach, and since under the circumstance, the patient risks losing her life, risks miscarriage and possible depression as consequences of her refusal of intervention, the doctors and nurses have to consider her life first as legally enforceable and specific. The related principles of non-maleficence and beneficence provide useful support for the argument requiring that the doctor, with the knowledge of the necessity of the intervention, avoids harm by not withholding such beneficial treatment. This makes the assumption that it is for the patient’s individual good that she receives treatment even if her expressed will has to be overridden. Although the patient’s autonomy should be respected as it is her life and at her age she is a competent adult, in this case, she will have to deal with the consequences of the blood transfusion in the future, when in a position of health and when her death has been avoided. This decision is justified based on my opinion to maximize the patient’s high quality of well-being on J. S Mill’s Principles of Utility (1806-1873). Mill (1998) states that the principle of utility does not mean that any given pleasure or exemption from pain (such as health) is to be looked upon as a means to happiness, and so to be desired. They are desired and desirable in and for themselves; besides being a means, they are a part of the end, a part of the happiness. An acknowledgement of the importance of her religion to her is, however, essential and is considered to be an important part of the argument put forth. Her religious stand and affiliation makes her wary of blood transfusion and represents the morally right position for her. I consider that under the principle of utility applied to this context, blood transfusion, if performed against her expressed will, would cause the patient unhappiness and pain in the future. However, considerations of future stigma and loss of acceptance, or depression resulting from her reaction to these consequences are only possible if she manages to survive her current predicament. It is therefore a priority and a greater good, that she receives such an intervention and manages to survive and that her unborn child also survives. I feel that she has a right to be accepted by the church and her family despite the decisions she makes, with the realization in all rationality that the blood transfusion, though considered a ‘mistake’ or ‘sin’, serves to get her to health and possibly to save her life after the accident. It is not an intended procedure that she willingly sought, but is necessitated by her medical predicament after the accident. She wouldn’t have to have the procedure in a state of adequate health and well-being. I would in this case, therefore, appeal for such rational consideration among the people in her social circle, with the acknowledgement of her predicament and respect for her autonomy and individual capacity and competence. I also consider the people she is associated with and her unborn child and the possible impact her unhappiness would bring them in future. I am aware that this conduct of blood transfusion could upset her family and church and cause some conflict within their relationship, but the main subject to consider is the patient. Respect for her autonomy and competence in the decision would make her feel worthy, valued, respected and dignified. Depression could result from either of the choices, if the blood transfusion is conducted or not. This could in turn cause harm to her unborn baby, to herself, and to those she associates with in her social world, who have to live with the consequences of such ill health. This means that whether or not the blood transfusion is conducted, there will possibly be consequences and we have then to weigh the relative impact of either option over the other to acquire a morally right position. However, our assumptions of the best interest for the patient and her good cannot be determinative of her ideal best interests. The consequences from proceeding with the blood transfusion against her expressed will, which we consider less harmful than the consequences of withholding of treatment, might well turn out to be worse for her. Depression and deterioration of health exacerbated by her loss of acceptance in her church and social circle could be terrible for her, worse in her case than the consequences of death or ill health consequent from withholding treatment which we consider to have more harm. Will we, by overriding her will, therefore be undermining her autonomy and treating her as a mere meansAcknowledging that she is a self-conscious and rational individual having distinct capacity and competence, we would and it would clearly be wrong to undermine her autonomy and flout her dignity. She can rationally evaluate the predicted outcomes, however unfavourable, and make appropriate decisions on what is acceptable for herself and morally right. The doctors therefore should comply with her expressed wishes, however unfavourable the outcome. From these arguments put forward in this case, I deduce that there would be more negatives than positives if the blood transfusion is conducted, even with her death and the loss of her unborn child as possible eventualities of withholding treatment. Conclusion The overall and ultimate questions are who is or what is it that determines what is right and what is wrongDo we do what is morally right according to the patient and respect their autonomy or do we go against her wishes and act based on what we as a society feel is morally right according to usGiven that our conclusions are dependent upon individual ideas and beliefs about what is moral and what is immoral basing on our religious, societal, cultural backgrounds, etc., what should we do in line with our work ethics, beliefs, codes of conduct, etc.? In assessing the case of the 20-year-old patient and the ethical dilemma resulting from her refusal of blood transfusion citing contravention to her religious beliefs, I have made explorations of this particular case using two major approaches; the utilitarian and deontological principles, together with the ethical principles of non-maleficence and beneficence to support the various arguments. The utilitarian approach seeks to protect the well-being of the patient as a legally enforceable right as under these circumstances, justifying the override of her wishes to conduct the blood transfusion. This approach is supported by ethical principles of non-maleficence and beneficence, that the doctor avoids harming the patient by not withholding necessary intervention and beneficial treatment. On the other hand, Kantianism/the deontological approach seeks to protect the autonomy and psychological independence of the patient in the evaluation of her predicament and the making of choices appropriate and acceptable to her in her moral standing. This latter approach is more appealing, considering that we cannot assume to be able to accurately quantify the greater of harms consequent from any of the choices of the ethical dilemma. There is a tendency for us to determine that death as an eventuality is a significant harm, and therefore to consider it a greater good to try and prevent such an eventuality whatever the arguments against it. This is especially so with an assumption that she can reconcile her predicament later after she manages to survive and is in better health. For the young patient, however, our assumptions of her best interest cannot be determinate of her ideal good and the consequences may turn out to be a greater harm to her, worse than the withholding of treatment. Her unhappiness from the override of her expressed will in conducting the blood transfusion and possible depression may lead to a deterioration of her health, with suffering and death as possible eventualities as well. With this consideration, I deem it morally right that the doctors respect her expressed will not to conduct the blood transfusion however unfavourable the consequences. References Childress, (ed.), James, F., Macquarrie, (ed.) John, 1986. The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. p. 400. Hart, H., 1973. â€Å"Bentham on Legal Rights.† In: Oxford Essays in Jurisprudence. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Paul, R., and L., Elder, 2006. The Miniature Guide to Understanding the Foundations of Ethical Reasoning. United States: Foundation for Critical Thinking Free Press. Mill, J., 1998. Crisp, R., ed. Utilitarianism. Oxford University Press. pp. 65. Wood, A., 1999. Kant’s Ethical Thought. New York: Cambridge University Press. How to cite Ethical dilemma of a patient’s refusal of blood transfusion, Essay examples

None Provided Essay Thesis Example For Students

None Provided Essay Thesis Stonehenge, one of the great Seven Wonders of the World, but what do we really know about it. What was its purpose, how was it built and by whom. Many different answers come up when asking the question What is Stonehenge?† Behind every great structure in the world, there are the people who made them, and who took the time and effort to design them. Those who made Stonehenge succeeded in creating an incredibly complex and mysterious structure that lived on long after its creators were dead. The many aspects of Stonehenge and the processes by which it was built reveal much about the intelligence and sophistication of the civilizations that designed and built the monument, despite the fact that it is difficult to find out who exactly these people were. They have left very little evidence behind with which we could get a better idea of their everyday lives, their culture, their surroundings, and their affairs with other peoples. The technology and wisdom that are inevitably require d in constructing such a monument show that these prehistoric peoples had had more expertise than expected. The planning and assembling of Stonehenge took a very long time (about one thousand years, from 2800 BC to 1500 BC*), and not one but many different groups of people were involved in the process. How they came about plays an important role in understanding them. Some of the first men to come to England that are connected to the Stonehenge builders came when the ice blocking Britain and France melted around 10,000 BC. After them, many more groups of people came from the mainland, and had great influence on those already living there. The first group involved in the building of Stonehenge was the Windmill Hill people. These people were semi nomadic farmers, mainly just keeping their flocks of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs, and growing wheat, who had arrived as some of the last Neolithic (or New Stone Age, 4300 – 2200 BC) newcomers in England. Not only were they far mers they also hunted, mined flint, made and traded axes, and could almost be called industrialists. The Windmill Hill people had a very strong religion with a great respect for their dead and their ancestors. They have exceptional collective graves, in the form of long barrows, or long manmade piles of dirt, sometimes 300 feet long. Many riches such as food, tools, and pottery were buried with the dead. The next group to contribute to Stonehenge was the Beaker people; known for the beaker-like pottery they would frequently bury with their dead. These people did not practice the ritual of collective burials, rather single or double burials, and the dead were accompanied by more weapons such as daggers and axes. These single burials were in the form of round barrows. The Beaker people were well organized, active, and powerful, and also probably more territorial. They practiced commerce with other cultures, and their graves give an impression of there being an aristocracy in the socie ty. The last major group to put time into the construction of Stonehenge was the Wessex culture group. They arrived on Salisbury plain around 1400 BC, and were involved in building the most prominent part of Stonehenge- the great stone circles. These people were well organized, and probably less aggressive than their predecessors, while more industrious. The people of Wessex were less concerned with war than they were with art, peace, and trade. In the graves of their chieftains (the only members of society who were preserved for afterlife), were goods such as daggers, bows, and various other ornaments. Their access to such treasures can perhaps be attributed to their great international traders who probably traded with people from the Mediterranean Sea area. They built the final phase of Stonehenge, and perhaps brought about many cultural changes to the monument such as giving the monument visual magnificence and more astronomical precision. It is necessary, in order to understand the complexity involved in the assembling of Stonehenge, to know the process by which and the environment in which the monument was built. By the time Stonehenge was built, the landscape around the area on Salisbury Plain was rather open with more farmland and grazing land, and less forest. Underneath the first few feet of soil on Salisbury Plain there was a substantial layer of hard chalk, which made building rudimentary structures somewhat easier for the people of the era. The first phase in building Stonehenge was that of the earth monument, which consisted of a circular bank of dirt (originally about 6 feet tall, now barely 2 feet tall) with a ditch running along the outside of the bank. There are two breaks in the ditch and bank, forming two entrances, and in addition there are 56 Aubrey Holes, named for John Aubrey, their discoverer, in a circle just inside the earth bank. This first phase, Stonehenge I, built by the Windmill Hill people, took from about 2950 to 2900 BC to con struct. Slightly more detailed than the first, the second phase of building Stonehenge involved the creation of a wooden monument. The postholes scattered about the floor of the monument are evidence for this stage. There seem to have been a roughly corridor shaped structure at the southern entrance of the earth monument, and a more detailed setting around the northeastern entrance. The Avenue, made up of a pair of long, straight, and parallel ditches, was also said to have been part of this second phase of Stonehenge. Stonehenge II could be credited to the Beaker people, approximately between the years 2800 and 2300 BC. The third and most impressive stage of the monument is that of the stone monument. Since the building of this phase extended from about 2500 to 1600 BC, it was the longest and most complex of the three, and was so divided up into six sub phases. First in the sequence was the arrival of the bluestones (the first, and smaller, type of stone involved in Stonehenge III) , and then the arrival of the sarsen stones (the larger, bulkier stones in Stonehenge III), followed by a possible bluestone arrangement. Then the stones were erected to their final settings (after a little rearranging), and finally small holes called the X and Y holes were dug around the outside of the stone circles. The builders of Stonehenge III were the people of the Wessex Culture, most likely in alliance with other peoples. It is understandable, through all of the complexity shown in the monument, that it many long hours to build and much patience and persistence to complete the construction. The bluestones had to be carried 200 to 250 miles from their source in the Prescelly Mountains back to the Stonehenge site. They were probably carried by waterways for most of the route because waterways are safer, quicker, and less difficult. One probable route was that the stones would be dragged to the coast nearest the Prescelly Mountains, then along the coast of the Bristol Channel, and then into the river systems of England, up the Stonehenge Avenue, and toward the monument. The most simple was to transport the stones over land is by having a crew of men to haul the stones on rollers. Similar transport methods were used for the sarsen stones, however their location was much closer as the source of the sarsen stone was in the Marlborough Downs, only about 20 miles north of Stonehenge. There was somewhat of a clear land path for these stones to be carried on, so water transport was at a minimum. But, these stones weighed about 30 tons each, and hauling these stones over 20 miles of hills could have easily used a total of 1,000 men and 7 years to be completed. The sarsen stones were put into large holes in the ground, and joined to their lintels by a mortise-and-tenon joint, and the lintels joined to each other (in the outer circle) with a tongue-and-groove joint. Much organization skills are needed to coordinate such a large number of men to perform the physical labor of constructing such a monument. The effort put into fabricating this monument is incomparable to anything that would be done today. When all of the constructing, refining, and arranging was finished, the resulting structure was extraordinary. There is an outermost circle (still considerably inside the ditch and bank) of 30 of the sarsen stones, each averaging 13 feet 6 inches tall, and each connected by a lintel stone to each stone on either side. Just inside that circle of sarsens is a circle of bluestones, smaller stones which are usually not taller than 6 feet. Inside of the bluestone circle is the trilithon horseshoe, or a horseshoe-shaped setting of sarsens in trilithons, or two sarsens standing next to each other with one lintel across the top. The open end of the horseshoe faces the northeast. Inside the trilithon horseshoe is a bluestone horseshoe. Inside the bluestone horseshoe, somewhat towards the center, is the altar stone, which might not have been used for that purpose. At the entrance to the monument, the heel stone stands just south of the line that runs down the center of the avenue, and not far off lies the slaughter stone, lying on the ground in the break of the circular bank. There are four station stones just inside the earth bank- one that points north, one that points to the south, and two that together make a line perpendicular to the axis of the avenue. The faces of all of the sarsen stones were dressed and shaped, and they were mostly given a convex shape to exaggerate the impression of grandeur one gets when looking up at the monuments. Being that there is little evidence for what Stonehenge could have been created for, other than the people buried there and what we directly observe about the monument, there have been many hypotheses about its purpose, and many of these hypotheses seem to be appropriate. Among the most accepted of these conjectures is that the stone monument was meant to be a temple, a burial ground, and, see mingly the most apparent of these, a solar/lunar observatory. The main entrance of Stonehenge that has the Avenue’s opening, towards which the entire stone monument is situated, points directly at the sunrise on the summer solstice. When standing in the center of the monument, on the longest day of the year, one can see the sun rise directly over the heel stone. This seems to force a viewer to notice the sunrise on the longest day of the year. The original four â€Å"station stones† placed around the circle make many alignments to point to rise and set points of the sun and moon on winter and summer solstices. Noteworthy is that the combination of sun and moon solstice rise and set points could only be collectively arranged in a perfect rectangle at the latitude at which Stonehenge is situated. A few miles north or south and the combination would have to be a parallelogram. In addition to the station stone alignments, each trilithon in the center horseshoe corresponds to certain alignments, as there are two sunset trilithons, a sunrise trilithon, and two for lunar alignments. Not only does this show that the builders and planners of Stonehenge had a great regard for the heavens, but also that they had great knowledge of geometry and science to be able to find exact angle measurements and proportions. It can also be seen that the Aubrey Holes could be used as a system of predicting eclipses. The 56 Aubrey Holes correspond to 3 cycles of the moon’s orbital wobble (The moon’s orbit wobbles in cycles of 18.66 years) and these could be used to line up with various solar alignments in Stonehenge to predict when the sun and moon would be at the same point in the sky. By a system of moving three markers around the 56 positions of the Aubrey holes, when all three were in the same spot, an eclipse was to occur. Within places in Stonehenge, such as the Aubrey Holes and the outer ditch, cremation remains of hundreds of people were found. This i nfers that Stonehenge was used as a primary burial site in the Stone and Bronze Ages. Remarkable is that a great amount of cremations were found on the southeast side of the circle, which is where the moon rises at its most southerly point. The many cultures of the Neolithic and Bronze ages seemed to have a preoccupation with death and the afterlife, and consequently took great regard to having the dead buried properly. In addition, since it is not possible to give each member of a society a proper burial in such a small area, the people must have had a hierarchical society in which some individuals had precedence over others for a glorious afterlife. As a place of worship, Stonehenge shows much detail and substance. Many of the celestial alignments put focus on things that are greater and more eternal than human beings, and these things could very well be the basis of the religion of the prehistoric cultures in the area. When seen from above, the lintels on the outer sarsen circle form a perfect circle that is impeccably level with the ground. Since this cannot be appreciated by people standing on the ground, it seems as if it is meant to be seen by someone above. The fixation with death and the afterlife among the peoples of Salisbury Plain seems to be a religion in itself. Perhaps the sun and moon gods, in being born and dying within their own cycles of rising and setting (and especially the moon’s cycle of growing dark and then bright again), could aid the soul of the human in being reborn in the afterlife. . The strategy for showing their gods of their worth was clearly well thought-out and well planned by the builders and peoples of the Stone Age. The complexity and intelligence of the peoples of Stonehenge can also be seen in surrounding monuments created by them and their neighbors. Most of the enclosures and round barrows in the vicinity of Stonehenge were created for burial purposes, with one or two people buried within them, usually accompani ed by valuables such as daggers, pottery, and in some cases, gold ornaments. These treasures often represent high status or high political position, indicating a structured government and system of beliefs that the cultures of Salisbury Plain possessed. Stonehenge represents the evolving and changing society of prehistoric times that gradually changed into a well-developed society with rulers, priests, and a working and farming class, as well as relations with other cultures from far away with which to engage in trade and associate. The idea that men from the Stone Age were unintelligent, ill-mannered barbarians is far from the truth in the case of Stonehenge. The cultures of Windmill Hill, the Beaker people, and Wessex all thoroughly demonstrate organized systems and communities of the Stone and Bronze Ages. Daniel Defoe EssayBIBLIOGRAPHYAncient Voices: The Secret of Stonehenge. Dir. Jean-Claude Bragard. Narrator Mark Hammil.Videocassette. BBC/Time Life, 1998. Cohen, I.L. The Secret of Stonehenge. Greenvale, NY: New Research Publications, Inc., 1977. Dimitrakopoulos, Sandra. (2000). Mystic Places: Stonehenge, Online}. Available HTTP: http://exn.ca/mysticplaces/stonehenge.cfm. Hawkins, Gerald S. Stonehenge Decoded. New York: Doubleday, 1965. Mackie, Euan. The Megalith Builders. Oxford: Phaidon Press Ltd., 1977. Niel, Fernand. The Mysteries of Stonehenge. New York: Avon Books, 1975. Service, Alastair, and Jean Bradbery. Megaliths and Their Mysteries. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1979. Souden, David. Stonehenge Revealed. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1997. White, John B. Afterward. Stonehenge Decoded. By Gerald S. Hawkins. New York: Doubleday, 1965. 191-197.